Religion (3)

Supernatural Specialists

Siberian Shaman in 1930

Shamans are the religious specialists found in most non-state cultures. The word itself comes from one of the Siberian tribes, where it was applied to the spirit mediators, and literally means "excited, frenzied man." Shamans are mediators between humans and the supernatural world, and have three basic traits.

Shamans receive their knowledge and ability to deal with the supernatural world directly from the supernatural world. While they often enter a trance-like or agitated state to contact the supernatural world (sometimes aided by drugs, but very often not), fundamentally it is the supernatural spirits that allow themselves to be contacted by a specific shaman. Without supernatural consent and assistance, the shaman could not mediate. While shamans often use practical herbal remedies when curing, and have to be trained by other shamans in this area, it is their ability to deal with the supernatural world that is critical. [Click here for accounts about how shamans from various cultures received their calling.]
Shamans are normally part-time religious specialists. They are involved in horticulture, pastoralism or foraging the rest of the time, depending upon their culture's mode of production.
Shamans are essentially preservers of the status quo: they are seeking to maintain their culture as it has been, and are not attempting to change the religious beliefs.

Priests are the religious specialists found in cultures with political states (both agrarian and industrial states) , and in the past in complex chiefdoms on the verge of transitioning to agrarian states.

Priests receive their knowledge and ability to deal with the supernatural world form a period of training, and are certified or officially sanctioned by a hierarchical, bureaucratic institution. These structures are only found in political states. While direct experience with the supernatural may be acceptable (a visitation or calling from God in Christian groups, for example), it is not the experience which makes a priest, but the approval of the religious institution.
Priests are normally full-time occupational specialists. They are supported by the communities (and in some cases the states) that they serve.
Priests, like shamans, are preservers of the status quo. While they might try to make their cultures more observant of religion, and while they (and their followers) might advocate non-believers to accept the specific religion represented by the priest, they are not fundamentally trying to change their culture.

Prophets are religious specialists that can be found in either non-state or state societies. (Don't confuse this with the Nuer term for shamans, which often also translates into "prophet" in English.)

Prophets, like shamans, receive their knowledge about the supernatural world directly from the supernatural, often in the form of a visionary experience.
Unlike either shamans or priests, prophets are not defenders of the status quo. If fact they are trying to change the religious beliefs of their culture, often in life-transforming ways. In this sense, Christ and Muhammad were both successful prophets. As members of agrarian states however, they ended up creating somewhat hierarchical religious structures with priests. Many of the founders of Protestant denominations within Christianity could also be viewed as prophets (like John Wesley, or Joseph Smith), even though again, they founded hierarchical religions. Other recent, less successful prophets might include Jim Jones, who led his followers to mass suicide, or David Koresh who died with many followers in Waco, Texas.

State vrs. Non-State Religions

While clearly there is overlap (particularly in the case of chiefdoms), religions of non-state modes of production (foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism) share many traits which distinguish them from religions associated with political states (intensive agriculture and industrialism).

Non-State Cultures	State Cultures
Humans are on a more or less equal footing with the supernatural world; humans can potentially manipulate or control the supernatural world;this human interaction tends to be with one or more "minor" supernaturals; major supernaturals stay out of human affairs. This approach to religion is often referred to as magic by anthropologists.	Humans are essentially subordinate to the supernatural world; little potential for control or influence. Gods are all-powerful, and if plural have hierarchical structure. Gods can be petitioned (prayed to) but there is no guarantee that they will do what the petitioner wants. This is often referred to as the religious approach.
No religious organization or institution exists; religious expression often permits very individualistic rites; no full time specialists.	Religion is institutionalized; run by a group of people who are usually full time professionals that form a bureaucracy. This bureaucracy monopolizes the performance of certain rites and rituals.
Shamans predominate.	Priests predominate.
Tend to take an amoral approach to behavior. There are rules for dealing with the supernatural world, but violation of the rules is viewed as stupid (since there may be consequences), not immoral or bad or sinful. (In non-state cultures, only 3% are interested in morality.)	Tend to take a moral approach to behavior. Behavior is either moral or immoral, good or evil. Very little relativism. (Of state cultures, some 80% are interested in moral vrs. immoral behavior.)

For this unit on religion, you need to look at, and be prepared to compare, the religious beliefs of three non-state cultures: the Yanomamo, the Nuer, and the traditional Hmong. All three are covered in the subsequent lessons. For the Hmong, read Spirit Catches You..., which contains all the information you need, and more. I have provided a summary of Hmong religious beliefs in the upcoming lesson. For the Yanomamo, read the lessons provided, and perhaps refer back to the Unit 1 reading: Chagon's Doing Fieldwork Among the Yanomamo. For the Nuer, you can also reread the article on the Nuer in Unit 2, as well as the lesson on Nuer religion in this unit. Note: Be prepared for a compare and contrast question on the exam!]